What Is Transmission of Shares?

The death of a loved one brings not only emotional grief but also complex legal responsibilities, particularly when the deceased owned shares in companies. Many Malaysians are surprised to learn that shares don't automatically transfer to family members upon death. Instead, they must undergo a specific legal process known as "transmission of shares."

Transmission of shares is fundamentally different from a typical share transfer between living parties. When someone dies, their shares become part of their estate and must be handled according to strict legal procedures. The process ensures that company shares move from the deceased shareholder to their legal personal representative (LPR) first, before any beneficiary can eventually inherit them.

This legal safeguard exists to protect both the company's interests and the rights of all stakeholders involved. Without proper transmission, shares remain in legal limbo, potentially causing significant problems for families and businesses alike.

The foundation of this process lies in the Companies Act 2016, Section 109(1), which states:

"In case of the death of a member, the survivor or survivors where the deceased was a joint holder, and the legal personal representatives of the deceased where he was a sole holder, shall be the only persons recognised by the company as having any title to his interest in the shares."

This provision makes it crystal clear that companies cannot recognize anyone other than the legal personal representative as having rights to the deceased's shares, regardless of family relationships or verbal promises made during the deceased's lifetime.

Why Understanding Transmission of Shares Matters

For many Malaysian families, understanding transmission of shares is crucial for several compelling reasons. First, Malaysia's economy includes numerous family-owned businesses, from small Sdn Bhd companies to larger enterprises passed down through generations. When a key shareholder dies without proper succession planning, the entire business can face operational paralysis.

Consider a typical scenario: A father owns 60% of a family business, with his wife and children as minority shareholders. Upon his sudden death, his majority stake cannot be accessed by anyone until the transmission process is complete. This means important business decisions requiring majority approval may be delayed, potentially affecting contracts, banking relationships, and day-to-day operations.

Beyond family businesses, many Malaysians hold shares in publicly listed companies as part of their investment portfolios. These shares represent real financial value that forms part of the deceased's estate. Without proper transmission, beneficiaries cannot access dividends, cannot vote on company matters, and cannot sell the shares even if they need liquidity to settle estate debts or support family members.

The process also protects against potential fraud and disputes. By requiring proper legal documentation and court approval, the transmission process ensures that only legitimate heirs can claim the deceased's shares. This prevents situations where distant relatives or other parties might attempt to claim ownership without proper legal standing.

From a practical standpoint, delays in transmission can create significant financial hardship for surviving family members. Estate assets remain frozen, preventing the settlement of debts, payment of funeral expenses, or distribution of inheritance to support dependents. Understanding and acting quickly on transmission requirements can prevent these complications.

What Happens to Shares When a Shareholder Dies?

Shares Are "Frozen" Until Transmission

The moment a shareholder dies, their shares enter a state of legal suspension that affects all associated rights and benefits. This "freezing" is not merely administrative convenience—it's a legal requirement designed to protect the integrity of the estate and the interests of all stakeholders.

During this frozen period, several important restrictions take effect. The company must withhold any dividends that would normally be paid to the deceased shareholder, as these can only be paid to the legal personal representative once proper evidence is produced. Any voting rights associated with the shares cannot be exercised, which can be particularly problematic if important company decisions are pending. The shares cannot be sold, transferred, or used as collateral for loans, even if the family desperately needs access to their value.

Important Note: Once the legal personal representative is properly recognized by the company, they become entitled to receive all dividends that would have been due to the deceased member—including dividends declared after death but before the LPR's registration. However, companies cannot pay these dividends directly to beneficiaries or the general "estate"—payment must be made specifically to the registered LPR.

This suspension continues until the legal personal representative is properly appointed and registered with the company. The duration can vary significantly depending on the complexity of the estate and how quickly the family acts to obtain the necessary court orders.

The legal framework for this process is established in the Companies Act 2016, Section 109(3), which provides:

"A person becoming entitled to a share in consequence of the death or bankruptcy of a member shall, upon producing such evidence as the directors may properly require, be entitled to the same dividends and other advantages, and to the same rights (except the right to transfer or attend meetings or to vote) as if he were the registered holder of the share."

What This Means in Practice:

Dividend Withholding: Upon the death of a member, the company should withhold dividends until the legal personal representative (executor or administrator) is formally recognised by producing the grant of probate or letters of administration.

Dividend Entitlement: Once the LPR is registered or accepted by the company after proof is produced, the LPR is entitled to receive all dividends that would have been due to the deceased member—even those declared after death but before registration.

Payment Restrictions: The company is NOT permitted to pay dividends directly to any beneficiary or the general "estate." Payment can only be made to the LPR who acts for the estate.

Limited Rights: While the LPR gains entitlement to dividends and other advantages, they do not automatically receive the right to transfer shares, attend meetings, or vote until they are properly registered as the shareholder under Section 110.

Who Is the Legal Personal Representative?

Understanding who can serve as a legal personal representative is crucial for families navigating this process. The law recognizes two types of legal personal representatives, each appointed under different circumstances.

Executor or Administrator

When the deceased left a valid will, the document typically names one or more executors. These individuals have the legal authority to manage the deceased's estate, but only after obtaining a grant of probate from the court. The grant of probate is essentially the court's official recognition that the will is valid and that the named executors have the authority to act on behalf of the estate.

If the deceased died without a will (intestate), the court must appoint an administrator to manage the estate. This appointment comes through letters of administration, which serve a similar function to probate but are issued when no will exists. The administrator is typically a close family member, such as a spouse or adult child, but the court has discretion in making this appointment based on what serves the estate's best interests.

The Probate & Administration Act 1959, Section 2 defines the legal personal representative as "the executor or administrator for the time being of a deceased person." This definition emphasizes that the appointment is official and court-sanctioned, not something that can be assumed by family members simply based on relationship or verbal agreements.

It's important to note that being named as a beneficiary in a will does not automatically give someone the right to deal with shares or other estate assets. Even if someone is set to inherit the shares ultimately, they cannot register as a shareholder or exercise any share-related rights until the proper legal personal representative is appointed and completes the transmission process.

This requirement protects against potential disputes and ensures that all estate debts and obligations are properly addressed before assets are distributed to beneficiaries.

How to Transmit Shares of a Deceased Shareholder (Step-by-Step)

Step 1: Get the Death Certificate

The death certificate serves as the fundamental document that triggers all estate proceedings. In Malaysia, death certificates are issued by the National Registration Department (JPN) and must be obtained promptly after death occurs. Family members should request multiple certified copies, as various institutions and processes will require original certificates.

For transmission of shares, the death certificate provides official confirmation of the shareholder's death and the date it occurred. This information is crucial for determining when share rights were suspended and for calculating any time-sensitive obligations or benefits.

Step 2: Apply for Grant of Probate or Letters of Administration

This step represents the most complex and time-consuming part of the transmission process. The type of application depends on whether the deceased left a valid will.

With a will: The named executor must apply for probate through the High Court. This process involves filing the original will, providing a comprehensive list of all estate assets and their values, and demonstrating that all legal requirements have been met. The court will examine the will's validity, confirm the executor's authority, and issue the grant of probate if satisfied. This court process typically takes 3-12 months and requires a lawyer to represent the applicant.

Without a will: A family member (typically the spouse or eldest child) must apply for letters of administration. This process is generally more complex because the court must also determine who should serve as administrator and how assets should be distributed according to the Distribution Act 1958. Like probate applications, this court process takes 3-12 months and must be handled by a qualified lawyer.

The legal foundations for these processes are found in the Probate & Administration Act 1959. Section 3 and Section 13 govern probate applications, while Section 30 addresses letters of administration. Additionally, the Distribution Act 1958, Section 6 determines how assets are distributed when no will exists.

Step 3: Notify the Company or Bursa Malaysia

Once the grant of probate or letters of administration is obtained, the legal personal representative must formally notify the relevant parties about the death and their appointment. The notification process differs depending on whether the shares are in a private company or publicly listed.

For private companies, notification typically goes to the company secretary or board of directors. The LPR must present the death certificate, the grant of probate or letters of administration, and any other evidence the company's articles of association or board may require.

For publicly listed companies, shares are typically held in a Central Depository System (CDS) account. The LPR must work with Bursa Malaysia Depository to update the records and transfer the shares to their name before they can be distributed to beneficiaries.

The Companies Act 2016, Section 109(2) provides the legal framework for this notification:

"…may, upon such evidence being produced as may from time to time be required by the directors… elect either to be registered himself as holder of the share or to have some person nominated by him registered as the transferee thereof."

This section gives the legal personal representative two options: register as the shareholder themselves or nominate someone else to be registered as the transferee.

Step 4: Register the Legal Personal Representative as Shareholder

After reviewing the submitted documents, the company must update its register of members to reflect the legal personal representative as the new shareholder. This registration is not optional—it's a legal requirement under the Companies Act 2016.

Section 110 of the Companies Act 2016 outlines the process:

"If a person becoming entitled to a share… elects to be registered himself, he shall deliver or send to the company a notice in writing signed by him stating that he so elects."

Once registered, the legal personal representative gains all the rights associated with the shares, including the right to receive dividends (including any that were declared after death but before registration), vote on company matters, and transfer the shares to beneficiaries. However, it's important to note that under Section 109(3), the LPR's initial entitlement (before full registration) excludes the right to transfer shares, attend meetings, or vote—these rights only become available upon proper registration under Section 110.

Step 5: Transfer Shares to Beneficiaries

The final step involves transferring the shares from the legal personal representative to the ultimate beneficiaries. This transfer can only occur after the LPR is properly registered as a shareholder and all estate debts and obligations have been settled.

The transfer process follows normal share transfer procedures under the Companies Act 2016, Sections 105 and 109(2). However, this transfer from the estate to beneficiaries triggers stamp duty obligations, which we'll discuss in detail below.

Stamp Duty on Transmission and Transfer of Shares

Understanding stamp duty implications is crucial for estate planning and can significantly impact the cost of the transmission process.

Transmission to LPR: No Stamp Duty

The initial transmission of shares from the deceased to the legal personal representative occurs by operation of law, not by sale or voluntary transfer. Because no consideration (payment) is involved, this transmission is not subject to stamp duty. This provision helps reduce the initial cost burden on grieving families dealing with estate administration.

Transfer to Beneficiary: Stamp Duty Applies

However, when the legal personal representative subsequently transfers shares to beneficiaries, stamp duty becomes payable. Transfer of shares from an executor or administrator (LPR) to a beneficiary is charged at RM3 per RM1,000 (0.3%) of the value of the shares.

How Is Stamp Duty Calculated?

The calculation is straightforward:

• Rate: RM3 per RM1,000 (0.3%) of the market value

• No cap: Unlike other types of transfers, there is no maximum duty limit

• Valuation: Based on market value at the time of transfer, determined according to LHDN's latest calculation guidelines applicable at the time

For example, if shares are worth RM100,000 at the time of transfer to a beneficiary (based on LHDN's calculation guidelines), the stamp duty would be calculated as follows:

• RM100,000 × 0.3% = RM300 stamp duty

For a larger inheritance of RM1,000,000 in shares (valued according to LHDN guidelines):

• RM1,000,000 × 0.3% = RM3,000 stamp duty

Important Note: The valuation must follow LHDN's latest calculation guidelines applicable at the time of transfer. These guidelines may specify different valuation methods for listed shares (typically market price) versus unlisted shares (which may require professional valuation or use of specific formulas).

This rate applies regardless of the value of the shares being transferred, making it important for families to factor stamp duty costs into their estate planning.

Transmission of Shares in Private vs. Public Companies

The type of company significantly affects the transmission process, and families should understand these differences to set appropriate expectations.

Private Company (Sdn Bhd)

Private companies in Malaysia are governed by the Companies Act 2016 and managed by their company secretary and board of directors. The transmission process is typically more straightforward but may take longer due to the need for board meetings and manual record-keeping.

The company secretary plays a crucial role in facilitating the transmission process. They maintain the register of members, prepare necessary documentation, and guide the legal personal representative through company-specific requirements. Some companies may have additional requirements in their articles of association that could affect the transmission process.

Key considerations for private companies include:

• Board approval may be required for registration of the LPR

• Share certificates may need to be located and surrendered

• The company's articles of association may contain specific transmission clauses

• Transfer restrictions may apply to subsequent transfers to beneficiaries

Public Company (Listed on Bursa Malaysia)

For publicly listed companies, shares are typically held in the Central Depository System (CDS) as governed by the Securities Industry (Central Depositories) Act 1991, Sections 29-32. This electronic system generally makes the transmission process faster and more efficient.

The legal personal representative must work with Bursa Malaysia Depository to update the CDS records. The process typically involves:

• Submitting required documents to the depository

• Completing specific forms for CDS account updates

• Obtaining new CDS statements reflecting the LPR's ownership

• Facilitating subsequent transfers to beneficiaries through the electronic system

The electronic nature of CDS holdings means that transmission can often be completed more quickly than with private companies, assuming all documentation is in order.

Consequences of Delay

Regardless of company type, delays in the transmission process have serious consequences. Share rights remain suspended, meaning no dividends can be collected, no voting rights can be exercised, and no transfers can be made. For family businesses, this can create operational difficulties and strategic planning challenges.

FAQs: Transmission of Shares after Death

Can shares be split among multiple beneficiaries?

Yes, shares can be divided among multiple beneficiaries, but this can only happen after the legal personal representative is properly registered as the shareholder. The LPR has the authority to transfer shares in any proportions specified in the will or as determined by the Distribution Act 1958 if no will exists.

The process typically involves preparing separate transfer documents for each beneficiary, with each transfer potentially subject to stamp duty. Families should consider the administrative burden and costs when deciding whether to split shares among multiple beneficiaries or transfer them to a single beneficiary who can then make further distributions.

No will?

When someone dies without a will (intestate), the Distribution Act 1958, Section 6 determines how assets are distributed. The typical distribution follows a hierarchy:

• Spouse and children share the estate in specific proportions

• If no spouse or children, parents and siblings may inherit

• More distant relatives may inherit if no closer family exists

The administrator appointed by the court must follow these statutory distribution rules, regardless of any verbal promises or family agreements the deceased may have made during their lifetime.

Can minors inherit shares?

Minors can inherit shares, but special arrangements are typically required. The legal personal representative may need to hold the shares in trust for the minor until they reach the age of majority. Alternatively, a trustee may be appointed to manage the shares on behalf of the minor.

The Companies Act 2016, Section 109(2) provides flexibility in these arrangements, allowing the LPR to nominate appropriate persons to be registered as shareholders on behalf of minor beneficiaries. This ensures that the shares are properly managed while protecting the minor's interests.

How long does it take?

The timeline for transmission varies significantly based on the chosen legal route and estate complexity:

Court Applications (Probate/Letters of Administration):

• Timeline: 3-12 months from application to completion

• Requirement: Must use a qualified lawyer

• Best for: All estates, especially those with shares or complex assets

Land Office Applications (Small Estates under RM5 million):

• Timeline: Usually more than 12 months

• Process: Through Small Estates (Distribution) Act 1955

• Consideration: Despite being designed for smaller estates, this route is significantly slower

Key Factors Affecting Timeline:

• Document completeness: Having all required documents ready before application is crucial. Missing documents can add months to the process

• Estate complexity: Simple estates with clear documentation move faster

• Court or land office workload: Processing times may vary based on institutional capacity

• Legal representation: Professional legal assistance helps avoid delays from incorrect filings or missing requirements

Critical Timing Advice: The timeline depends heavily on having complete documentation from the start. Missing even one document can cause major delays, which is why most professionals strongly recommend hiring a lawyer to ensure all requirements are met correctly the first time.

Company won't register the LPR?

If a company refuses to register the legal personal representative despite proper documentation, the LPR has legal recourse. The Companies Act 2016, Sections 109(2) and 110 create mandatory obligations for companies to recognize properly appointed legal personal representatives.

The LPR can take legal action to compel the company to comply with its statutory obligations. This may involve applying to the court for an order directing the company to update its register of members.

Debts to settle?

Estate debts must be paid before assets can be distributed to beneficiaries. This requirement is established in the Probate & Administration Act 1959, Section 36 and the Distribution Act 1958, Section 4.

The legal personal representative has a fiduciary duty to identify all estate debts, including taxes, funeral expenses, outstanding loans, and creditor claims. Shares may need to be sold to generate cash for debt payment, or beneficiaries may receive reduced inheritances after debts are settled.

How to Speed Up the Transmission and Estate Distribution Process

Apply for Grant of Probate or Letters of Administration Covering ALL Assets

One of the most effective ways to speed up the process is to ensure that the initial court application covers all estate assets, including shares, real estate, bank accounts, and personal property. Piecemeal applications create delays and increase costs.

The Probate & Administration Act 1959, Section 23 allows for amendments to estate applications, but these amendments require additional court time and legal fees. A comprehensive initial application, while requiring more upfront work, ultimately saves time and money.

Small Estates (Below RM5 Million) - Important Considerations

For estates valued below RM5 million, families have different options depending on whether the deceased left a will:

If There IS a Will (Testate): According to Section 5(1) of the Small Estates (Distribution) Act 1955, the High Court has exclusive jurisdiction to grant probate of any will or testamentary disposition in respect of a small estate where the deceased has left a valid will. This means:

• Only option: High Court application for probate

• Timeline: 3-12 months with mandatory lawyer representation

• Treatment: The estate is treated as if it were not a small estate for probate purposes

If There is NO Will (Intestate): Section 8(1) of the Small Estates (Distribution) Act 1955 provides that a petition for distribution under the Small Estates (Distribution) Act is only applicable where the deceased has died intestate (without a will). This creates two options:

Option 1: Land Office via Small Estates (Distribution) Act 1955

• Eligibility: Only for intestate estates under RM5 million

• Timeline: Typically takes more than 12 months

• Process: Administrative procedure through land office

Option 2: High Court Application (Recommended)

• Eligibility: Available for all estates, including intestate ones under RM5 million

• Timeline: 3-12 months with mandatory lawyer representation

• Advantage: Significantly faster than the land office route

Professional Recommendation: Most estate lawyers recommend the High Court route for all estates when shares are involved, as the faster timeline allows beneficiaries to access their inheritance much sooner. For estates with wills, the High Court is the only legal option available.

Checklist to Avoid Delays

To minimize delays in the transmission process, families should:

Preparation Phase:

• Compile a complete inventory of all assets and their current values

• Gather all relevant documents (death certificate, will, financial statements)

• Identify and contact all stakeholders (family members, business partners, professionals)

• Obtain multiple certified copies of essential documents

Application Phase:

• File comprehensive court applications covering all assets

• Provide accurate valuations and complete documentation

• Respond promptly to any court or administrative requests

• Maintain regular communication with legal representatives

Transmission Phase:

• Notify all relevant companies and institutions promptly

• Submit complete documentation packages to avoid back-and-forth requests

• Follow up regularly on processing status

• Address any issues or questions immediately

Common Mistakes and How to Avoid Them

Not getting probate/LA promptly

Many families delay applying for probate or letters of administration due to grief, family disputes, or lack of understanding about the urgency. This delay compounds other problems and can result in missed opportunities or additional complications.

The Probate & Administration Act 1959, Section 23 and the Small Estates Act 1955, Section 8 provide frameworks for these applications, but they require active pursuit by the family.

Missing assets in the original application

Failing to include all assets in the initial court application creates significant delays when amendments are needed. This mistake often occurs when families are unaware of all the deceased's holdings or when they underestimate the importance of including every asset.

Incomplete paperwork to company/Bursa

Submitting incomplete documentation to companies or Bursa Malaysia results in processing delays and additional correspondence. Each organization has specific requirements under the Companies Act 2016, Section 109(2), and families should ensure they understand and meet these requirements before submission.

Forgetting stamp duty at beneficiary transfer stage

Many families are caught off-guard by stamp duty obligations when transferring shares from the estate to beneficiaries. The current rate of RM3 per RM1,000 (0.3%) of share value with no cap means that substantial inheritances can incur significant stamp duty costs that must be factored into estate planning.

Family or company disputes

Disagreements among family members or disputes with company management can significantly delay the transmission process. These issues often arise when succession planning was inadequate or when family members have different expectations about inheritance.

Expert Tips for Beneficiaries and Legal Representatives

Start with a complete asset inventory

Before beginning any legal proceedings, create a comprehensive inventory of all estate assets. This inventory should include not only obvious assets like shares and real estate but also less obvious holdings like pension benefits, insurance policies, and business interests.

The Probate & Administration Act 1959, Section 23 requires accurate asset disclosure, and a complete inventory prevents delays and amendments later in the process.

Communicate early with secretaries, Bursa, and lawyers

Early communication with all stakeholders helps identify potential issues and requirements before they become obstacles. Company secretaries, Bursa Malaysia representatives, and legal professionals can provide valuable guidance about their specific processes and requirements.

The Companies Act 2016, Sections 51 and 109 establish the framework for these communications, but proactive engagement often smooths the practical implementation.

Know your legal obligations at every stage

Legal personal representatives have significant fiduciary duties under the law. Understanding these obligations helps prevent mistakes and ensures compliance with the Companies Act 2016, Sections 109 and 110.

Key obligations include:

• Acting in the best interests of all beneficiaries

• Maintaining accurate records of all transactions

• Settling estate debts before making distributions

• Following proper procedures for all transfers and registrations

Get legal advice for any complexity

While the legal framework exists to guide the transmission process, the reality is that most families will benefit from professional legal assistance, especially given the mandatory lawyer requirement for court applications and the complexity of ensuring complete documentation.

When Legal Assistance is Mandatory:

• All court applications: Both probate and letters of administration through the High Court require qualified legal representation

• Complex share structures: Multiple companies, different share classes, or business partnerships

• Disputed estates: Any family disagreements or contested inheritances

When Legal Assistance is Strongly Recommended:

• Document preparation: Ensuring all required documents are complete and accurate from the start

• Timeline optimization: Choosing between court and land office routes for estates under RM5 million

• Estate planning: Coordinating share transmission with other estate assets and obligations

• Stamp duty planning: Minimizing tax obligations through proper structuring

The Cost of Not Using a Lawyer: Missing documents or incorrect filings can add months to an already lengthy process. Given that share rights remain frozen during this period, the cost of delays often exceeds the legal fees for proper representation. Additionally, the mandatory lawyer requirement for court applications means families cannot avoid legal costs entirely.

Professional Recommendation: Given the complexity of Malaysian estate law and the mandatory legal representation requirements, engaging a qualified lawyer from the beginning typically results in faster completion and lower overall costs.

Who Can Help You with the Transmission of Shares of a Deceased Shareholder?

The Role of a Corporate Lawyer

A qualified corporate lawyer brings specialized knowledge and experience that can significantly improve the transmission process. Their expertise spans multiple areas of law that intersect in estate and corporate matters.

Legal Knowledge:

• Deep understanding of the Companies Act 2016 and its practical application

• Familiarity with Stamp Act 1949 requirements and calculation methods

• Experience with Probate & Administration Act 1959 procedures

• Knowledge of Distribution Act 1958 for intestate estates

Practical Skills:

• Preparation of accurate legal documents to avoid delays and rejections

• Coordination with multiple parties (courts, companies, Bursa Malaysia)

• Problem-solving when issues arise during the process

• Strategic advice on timing and sequencing of various steps

• Stamp duty planning: Calculating and minimizing the 0.3% stamp duty on share transfers to beneficiaries, including proper valuation according to LHDN's guidelines

Specialized Services:

• Business succession planning for family companies

• Dispute resolution when family or corporate conflicts arise

• Tax planning to minimize stamp duty and other obligations

• Ongoing compliance advice for inherited business interests

When to Engage a Corporate Lawyer:

• When the estate includes significant business interests

• If family disputes are likely or have already emerged

• For complex share structures or multiple types of securities

• When dealing with publicly listed companies and CDS requirements

• If the deceased was involved in multiple companies or business ventures

Conclusion: Act Early, Act Right

The transmission of shares following a death is more than a legal formality—it's a crucial process that protects family wealth, ensures business continuity, and honors the deceased's intentions. For Malaysian families, understanding this process and acting promptly can prevent significant hardship and preserve the value of carefully built estates.

The key to successful transmission lies in preparation, prompt action, and professional guidance when needed. Families who understand their legal obligations, maintain complete documentation, and engage qualified professionals when appropriate will find the process more manageable and less stressful during an already difficult time.

Remember that while the legal framework provides structure and protection, each family's situation is unique. The investment in proper professional guidance during the transmission process often pays dividends in terms of time saved, costs avoided, and family harmony preserved.

Most importantly, the transmission of shares should be viewed as part of a broader estate planning strategy. Families who address these issues proactively during the shareholder's lifetime—through proper succession planning, clear documentation, and family communication—will find the transmission process much smoother when it becomes necessary.

The legacy of a deceased shareholder extends beyond the mere transfer of legal ownership. It encompasses the preservation of family wealth, the continuation of business enterprises, and the fulfillment of the deceased's intentions for their life's work. By understanding and properly executing the transmission process, families can ensure that this legacy is protected and honored for future generations.